We situated our study within three areas of existing research regarding out-of-school learning: education policy providing for 21st CCLC programs, early childhood education impacts on student outcomes, and parent engagement with out-of-school learning programs. In support of our presentation of the literature, we used Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory to explore the interaction of various contexts on the developing child and how the interactions between various systems may influence the child’s learning.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (1994) suggests that the various environments that a child interacts with are influenced from within and between other environments, and thus the development of the child is dependent upon many factors. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s initial theory (1979) is grounded in the notion that to understand human development we must study it in the context, or ecology, in which it exists. The theory can be viewed as layers of nested interactions or systems that influences the child’s development, and thus the relationships and interactions between the complex layers also affect the child.
At the core of the model is the child’s own biology: age, health, temperament, and other biological factors that influence learning—which were not included as a study variable. The next level is the child’s relationship with a parent or parental figure, and teachers or other early childhood care providers, Bronfenbrenner calls this the microsystem. This is the system closest to the child and is a key determinant in a child’s development. The microsystem is nested within the larger mesosystem. Mesosystems might be the family, school, or community, or specific interventions such as early childhood education or out-of-school learning programs. Finally, the largest system in Bronfenbrenner’s theory is the macrosystem which houses social structures, culture, and established policies and laws that may encourage or hinder the child’s development. This study focused on interaction between the microsystem of the parent–child and teacher–child relationships; the mesosystem of the intervention program of early childhood education through out-of-school learning programs; as well as the broader macrosystem of federal policies to address achievement outcomes for at-risk youth (Fig. 1).
Macrosystem: education policy related to 21st Century Community Learning Centers program
Although the majority of school funding in Idaho comes from state and local resources, the federal role is important in setting the tone for the policy agenda. Federal policy provides the guidance and direction for states and local school districts, especially when it comes to federal funding of programs meant to close the achievement gaps for disadvantaged youth. The 21st Century Community Learning Centers (CCLC) program is currently authorized under Title IV, Part B, of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as amended by Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015. The program began in the 1990s when the Improving Americas Schools Act was passed to create a federal funding stream for after-school programs. Today’s 21st CCLC program is the result of a dedicated source of federal funding exclusively to support after-school programs that began in 1997, was reauthorized in 2002, and again in 2015. Each state receives funds based on its share of Title I funding for low-income students.
The federal program supports the creation of community learning centers that provide academic enrichment opportunities during non-school hours for children, primarily those who attend high-poverty and low-performing schools. The program is designed to provide academic enrichment opportunities, art, music, recreation, sports, drug and violence prevention, and youth development activities to students during non-school hours. The program also offers families of students served by community learning centers opportunities for educational development and support for family literacy.
Mesosystems: 21st CCLC and early childhood education in Idaho
A mesosystem is defined by Bronfenbrenner (1979) as a set of interrelations between two or more contexts impacting the child. Since 2003, Idaho has participated in the federal program and received funding from the U.S. Department of Education to operate 21st Century Community Learning Centers (21st CCLCs). The state program is administered by the Idaho State Department of Education (SDE), which provides sub‐grants to support out‐of‐school‐time programs across the state. Individual grantees in turn operate “centers” that provide academic enrichment and other support services or activities for K-12 students and their parents or guardians. Most grantees are local education associations (school districts) and some are community organizations or nonprofit agencies. The U.S. Department of Education has provided funding for 21st CCLC grantees in “rounds;” each round of funding lasts for five years. The 21st CCLC program in Idaho supports community efforts to: (1) help students meet state and local standards in core academic subjects, such as reading and math; (2) offer students a broad array of enrichment activities that can complement their regular academic programs; and (3) offer literacy and other educational services to the families of participating children.
There is much debate in Idaho and across the United States about early childhood education—how to best serve students, particularly those in poverty, and how to prepare them for academic success in and beyond their K-12 schooling. Bassok et al. (2016) point to a number of recent studies showing that children’s academic skills during early childhood—particularly their math skills—are the strongest predictors of their later performance on a number of cognitive and noncognitive outcomes (Claessens & Engel, 2013; Claessens et al., 2009; Duncan et al., 2007; Watts et al., 2014). There is also evidence that exposure to academic content in kindergarten (particularly, engaging and advanced content) can be beneficial for student learning (Claessens et al., in press; Clements & Sarama, 2011; Engel et al., 2015). Magnuson et al. (2007), for example, show that more academically oriented early elementary experiences can help children who did not attend preschool catch up with their peers. Despite research such as this in support of early childhood programming and the need for early intervention, especially for disadvantaged children, Idaho does not require preschool or kindergarten for any student. Kindergarten, which has been identified by the state as an early childhood program, is not required and is not fully funded. Idaho currently only funds a half day of kindergarten. Idaho has accepted the Common Core Standards, now called the Idaho Core, which includes standards to be taught in kindergarten, but yet, Idaho children are not required to attend public school until the age of 7, which is identified as first grade (Idaho Instructional Manual for Reporting Attendance, p. 2). Without state funding for early childhood education many districts have utilized federal funding in the form of Title 1 or 21st CCLC grants to provide support for early learners.
Previous research (Durlak & Weissberg, 2007) has focused on improvements in personal and social skills for students attending 21st CCLC programs. Granger (2008) presents findings about effectiveness of various types of OST programming, but states, “We undoubtedly need good work on the effects of after-school programming.” There is a need to study academic outcomes for early childhood programming, as well as parent perceptions related to the value of the program.
Microsystem: parent–child interaction with 21st CCLC programs in Idaho
The role of the parent as the first teacher is important to support. Children who lack a stimulating home life during their early development years often show deficits in basic skills upon entering kindergarten (Brown, 2013). Parents in poverty are often not able to provide the same resources and experiences for their children and may lack access to information and materials to support their child’s learning and development. Children who have had rich pre-literacy experiences, such as ongoing reading by parents and encountering a variety of words through everyday conversations have better school outcomes (Dearing et al., 2004). Further research from Jeynes (2012) shows that parent involvement in their child’s school experience and educational development are strong indicators in the success of the child’s learning. Furthermore, parents from low socio-economic backgrounds are less likely to engage in communication with teachers about their children’s early literacy development and how to support children’s learning at home, especially if there are language or cultural differences between the home and school (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005). For these parents, involvement in their children’s education is vital, as research (Dearing et al., 2004) demonstrates that parent involvement has especially strong outcomes for children of low-income families and English Language Learners and children of diverse cultural backgrounds (Jeynes, 2012).